The Importance Of Teamwork And Performance Of Team Members

In this time of intensified competition, leaders should recognize the significance of teamwork more so now than ever before. Working parties or a team of individuals can increase the productivities of individuals through teamwork. However, it is in my opinion that employees who have efficient teamwork talents are growing to be the orthodox for the workforce. It is to my understanding and belief that teamwork is one source of expanding man-power consumption and potentially improving performance of team members. However, teamwork may perhaps influence positively on the workforce performance, job contentment and enhanced employee dedication level. With encouragement from superior level management, an individual might be more acceptable to working more confidently in a group or with a team and it may also increase efficiency within the organization. Therefore, I would boldly say that we are in ever changing business world where leaders are designating more team assignments to staff membe rs with opportunities to increase their knowhow and improve their teamwork skills. 1 Timothy 4:12 states, â€Å"Let no man despise thy youth; but be thou an example of the believers, in word, in conversation, in charity, in spirit, in faith, in purity† (NKJ). Prove oneself as trustworthy in the workforce is the keep to leadership and growth in the workforce. As leaders, it is to my experience that one of the greatest challenges we encounter on a day after day basis is that of truly managing ourShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of Team And A Team Leader As Well As The Team Behaviours Necessary For Effective Team Performance1402 Words   |  6 Pagesmultidisciplinary team (MDT) approach is required to provide a safe and quality holistic care for patients. 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Political Economy and the Propaganda Model of Noam Chomsky Free Essays

string(29) " Salvador earlier this year\." Using one of the case studies outlined by Chomsky Herman in ‘Manufacturing Consent – The Political Economy of the Mass Media’, critically assess the main propositions put forward in their analysis of the mass media. Is the ‘Propaganda Model’ still relevant today? Noam Chomsky along with Edward Herman has developed the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Propaganda Model†Ã‚  of the media works. They helped develop the detailed and sophisticated analysis of how the wealthy and powerful use the media to propagandise their own interests behind a mask of objective news reporting. We will write a custom essay sample on Political Economy and the Propaganda Model of Noam Chomsky or any similar topic only for you Order Now Herman and Chomsky expound this analysis in their book  Ã¢â‚¬ËœManufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media’. In their 1988 book, Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky’s ‘propaganda model’ argues that there are 5 classes of ‘filters’ in society which determine what is ‘news’; in other words, what gets broadcast by radio or printed in newspapers and shown on television. Herman and Chomsky’s model also explains how dissent from the mainstream is given little, or zero, coverage, while governments and big business gain easy access to the public in order to convey their state-corporate messages. Noam Chomsky has been engaged in political activism most of his life; he spoke up firstly about the media coverage of Nicaragua. July 19, 1979 – the leftist  Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional  (FSLN/Sandinistas) rolled into Managua, Nicaragua leader of the insurrection that had finally succeeded in overthrowing the dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle. Then there was the election in 1984. The American coverage for the elections in Nicaragua and el Salvador are a key aspect which Chomsky and Herman cover in Manufacturing Consent, and one which Chomsky spoke of on many occasions. The media covered both elections in both countries simultaneously the American media condemned the outcome of the election in Nicaragua as a â€Å"soviet sham† because the new Nicaraguan government were against the American puppet government and were a more socialist country. Because President Reagan’s war created a need for a propaganda victory, in December 1983 the Sandinistas outsmarted Washington by scheduling their first post-triumph election earlier than originally planned— 2 days before Americans would decide whether President Reagan should continue to lead the country. The Media coverage up to this point had been little in the way of truth, and of the actual happenings of Nicaragua in the past. What they were trying to achieve, for many years, and most of all about the upcoming elections of the time. The American press seemed to try and protect America’s interest and perception by the people, then to deliver unbiased reporting. The fact that most of the rest of the world was opposed to Reagan’s terrorist activities didn’t filter through to the Americans. Most of the Nicaraguan people, along with many worldwide had hoped that if the Sandinistas won as expected, Washington would accept the results and call off President Reagan’s â€Å"freedom fighters†. This was a naive hope, as Secretary of State George P. Shultz made clear: â€Å"with or without elections we will continue our policy of pressuring Nicaragua†. Nicaragua was in the news on election night in the U. S, but the story that was in the news was not one on Nicaragua’s election. The story was of soviet MIGs. As reported by CBS Evening News on November 6, 1984, the soviet freighter Bakuriani was on its way to Nicaragua with MIG 21 fighters aboard. The ‘sham election’ story was succeeded quickly by the security threat story. The overwhelming majority of objective observers concluded that the election was conducted competently and fairly by the Supreme Electoral Council, and that all Nicaraguan political parties had been given ample opportunity and resources to campaign and get their messages out to the people without serious hindrance from the Sandinistas. While all this was going on, the American government stated on the complete flipside that the El Salvador election, whose victors were against the socialist uprising, was a victory for democracy. The Americans supported the oppressive party and condemned the socialists because it suited them and they could easily pass off the socialists as communists. The American government continued to support and fund the tyranny long after this travesty. â€Å"Only the naive believe that Sunday’s election in Nicaragua was democratic or legitimizing proof of the Sandinistas’ popularity. The result was ordained when opposition parties tamely accepted terms that barred them from power. This plebiscite will not end the struggle for pluralism in Nicaragua. But neither can it serve as justification for recent American policy. â€Å"The Sandinistas made it easy to dismiss their election as a sham. †¦ † Nobody Won in Nicaragua, Editorial, New York Times, Nov 7, 1984 pg. A26. â€Å"No major political tendency in Nicaragua was denied access to the electoral process in 1984. The only parties that did not appear on the ballot were absent by their own choice, not because of government exclusion. †¦ Opposition parties received their legal allotments of campaign funds and had regular and substantial access to radio and television. The legally registered opposition parties were able to hold the vast majority of their rallies unimpeded by pro-FSLN demonstrators or by other kinds of government interference. † (http://www. williamgbecker. com/lasa_1984. pdf)â € A member of the [opposition] Popular Social Christian Party, Jose Lazos said his party ‘recognized the percentage of the F. S. L. N. vote. ‘ ‘It was an honourable process’, he said. † [Lazos also confided to the LASA delegation â€Å"We received the vote we expected†. LASA report, ibid. , p. 18. — B. B. ] â€Å"A team of observers from the Washington Office on Latin America, a church-sponsored lobbying group, said the electoral process had been ‘meaningful’ and had provided a political opening in Nicaragua. â€Å"The group, in a statement prepared after the voting ended on Sunday, said the process had been ‘well-conceived’ and had afforded ‘easy access to vote with guarantees of secrecy. †Ã‚  From  Sandinista Claims Big Election Victory, by Gordon Mott. New York Times, Nov 6, 1984. â€Å"However, [Virgilio Godoy, the PLI presidential candidate who dropped out the day after a visit from the U. S. ambassador] went on to compare favourably Nicaragua’s election with presidential elections in El Salvador earlier this year. You read "Political Economy and the Propaganda Model of Noam Chomsky" in category "Papers" ‘If the US is going to try to be honest in evaluating these elections, it will be a real problem for the Reagan administration,’ Mr. Godoy said. ‘If the US administration said that the Guatemalan and Salvadorian elections were valid ones, how can they condemn elections in Nicaragua, when they have been no worse and probably a lot better than elections in Salvador and Guatemala. ‘The elections here have been much more peaceful. There were no deaths as in the other two countries, where the opposition were often in fear for their lives. ‘† Nicaragua vote seen as better run than Salvador’s By Dennis Volman, Staff writer of The Christian Science Monitor November 5, 1984, p. 13. Managua, Nicaragua  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Reviewing the history of the negotiations between the FSLN and the opposition parties since 1981, and especially during the current election year, Stephen Kinzer, the Managua-based correspondent of The New York Times, told our delegation ‘The FSLN gave in on almost all of the opposition parties’ demands concerning how the electoral process would be run. Their stance seemed to be, â€Å"if any clause of the election law causes serious controversy, we’ll modify it. † Most of the opposition’s complaints about the process had nothing to do with the mechanics of the elections, but rather were more general criticisms of the political system†¦. What some of these groups want is a complete change in the political system: to abolish the CDSs (Sandinista Defence Committees), get the Sandinistas out of the army, prohibit [incumbent] government officials from running for office, and so forth. In short, they want Nicaragua to become a parliamentary democracy first, before they will participate. But this isn’t Switzerland! ‘ † (LASA report, ibid. , p. 12. )†Suppose that some power of unimaginable strength were to threaten to reduce the United States to the level of Ethiopia unless we voted for its candidates, demonstrating that the threat was real. Suppose that we refused, and the threat was then carried out, the country brought to its knees, the economy wrecked and millions killed. Suppose, finally, that the threat were repeated, loud and clear, at the time of the next scheduled elections. Under such conditions, only the most extreme hypocrite would speak of a free election. Furthermore, it is likely that close to 100% of the population would succumb. â€Å"Apart from the last sentence, I have just described U. S. -Nicaraguan relations for the last decade. † —Noam Chomsky, The Boston Globe, March 4, 1990El Salvador in 1982 and 1984, and Nicaragua in 1984, provide a virtually controlled experiment in media integrity or submissiveness. The U. S. government promoted the Salvadoran elections as marvels of democratic advance, under adverse conditions, while trying to undermine and discredit the Nicaraguan election as a sham, even though facts did not support claims of superiority of the former election. In the case of El Salvador, the U. S. government agenda stressed the importance and excellence of the election. They focused on the long lines of smiling voters, the size of the turnout, rebel opposition and alleged efforts at disruption. Additionally, they downplayed the absence of fundamental conditions of a free election, such as the freedoms of press and assembly; the ability of all groups to run candidates; and freedom from state terror and coercive threats. The idea that the American press was so quick to praise one and condemn the other is what Chomsky refers to as the ‘propaganda model’ of the mass media. The American government dictates the press into writing about what benefits the American government more so than writing about the truth. Is the Propaganda Model still relevant today? In their propaganda model, Herman and Chomsky present a series of five â€Å"filters† to account for why the dominant U. S. media invariably serve as propagandists for the interests of the elite. Only stories with a strong orientation to elite interests can pass through the five filters unobstructed and receive ample media attention. The model explains how the media can conscientiously function when even a superficial analysis of the evidence would indicate the preposterous nature of many of the stories that receive ample publicity in the press and on the network news broadcasts. However, what, if any of what Chomsky and Herman presented is still relevant today? The model was dubbed a conspiracy theory by many critics on both left and right although Herman says he and Chomsky had looked for structural factors as the only possible root of systematic behaviour and performance patterns. In defending ‘Manufacturing Consent: Political Economy of the Mass Media’, Noam Chomsky’s collaborator Edward Herman says; â€Å"Institutional critiques such as we present in this book are commonly dismissed by establishment commentators as ‘conspiracy theories,’ but this is merely an evasion. We do not use any kind of ‘conspiracy’ hypothesis to explain mass-media performance. In fact, our treatment is much closer to a ‘free market’ analysis, with the results largely an outcome of the workings of market forces.   Herman goes on to further explain how the model is not a conspiracy theory and relevant: â€Å"The propaganda model describes a decentralized and non-conspiratorial market system of control and processing, although at times the government or one or more private actors may take initiatives and mobilize co-ordinated elite handling of an issue. † The â€Å"propaganda model† has as little in common with a â€Å"conspiracy theory† as saying that the management of General Motors acts to maintain and increase its profits. As Chomsky notes,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"to confront power is costly and difficult; high standards of evidence and argument are imposed, and critical analysis is naturally not welcomed by those who are in a position to react vigorously and to determine the array of rewards and punishments. Conformity to a ‘patriotic agenda,’ in contrast, imposes no such costs. †Ã‚  Meaning that  Ã¢â‚¬Å"conformity is the easy way, and the path to privilege and prestige†¦ It is a natural expectation, on uncontroversial assumptions, that the major media and other ideological institutions will generally reflect the perspectives and interests of established power.   [Necessary Illusions, pp. 8-9 and p. 10] So in totally ruling out the ‘conspiracy theory’ label, Herman writes that â€Å"the dramatic changes in the economy, the communications industries, and politics over the past dozen years have tended on balance to enhance the applicability of the propaganda model. The first two filters–ownership and advertising–have become ever more important. The decline of public broadcasting, the increase in corporate power and global reach, and the mergers and centralization of the media, have made bottom-line considerations more influential both in the United States and abroad. The competition for advertisers has become more intense and the boundaries between editorial and advertising departments have weakened further. Newsrooms have been more thoroughly incorporated into transnational corporate empires, with budget cuts and even less management enthusiasm for investigative journalism that would challenge the structure of power (Herman and McChesney, 1997). † What Herman is saying is that the journalists own voice has been reduced. The Internet and new communication technologies are breaking the corporate stranglehold on journalism somewhat and opening an unprecedented era of interactive democratic media. Some think that they permit media firms to shrink staff while achieving greater outputs and they make possible global distribution systems, thus reducing the number of media entities. Herman states â€Å"there are, by one conservative count, 20,000 more PR agents working to doctor the news today than there are journalists writing it. †Looking for more modern examples to see if ‘The propaganda model’ still applies Herman uses the media’s treatment of the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the subsequent Mexican crisis and meltdown of 1994-95. He states that â€Å"once again there was a sharp split between the preferences of ordinary citizens and the elite and business community, with polls consistently showing substantial majorities opposed to NAFTA — and to the bailout of investors in Mexican securities — but the elite in favour†. Media news coverage, selection of â€Å"experts,† and opinion columns were skewed accordingly; their judgment was that the benefits of NAFTA were obvious, agreed to by all qualified authorities, and that only demagogues and â€Å"special interests† were opposed. Labour has been under siege in the United States for the past fifteen years according to Herman, â€Å"but you would hardly know this from the mainstream media. † Using the example of the long Pittston miners’ strike to show â€Å"the propaganda model’s† relevance in a similar way to Nicaragua, Timor, Jerzy Popieluszko and so many of Chomsky and Herman other examples the strike was afforded much less attention than the strike of miners in the Soviet Union. The more recent examples to think of would be the American media coverage of the whole â€Å"war on terror† compared with most of the world’s media. Much of the world opposed the Iraq war and Americas invasions. In conclusion, the propositions put forward by Chomsky and Herman, such as the ‘five filters’ and their theories of mass media compared with worldwide media seem to be based on very solid ground, with a good foundation of case studies and research. The case study of Nicaragua being a prime example that backs up their studies in Manufacturing Consent. It is quite clear to see how the American media has filtered different stories and overall tried to sway people’s perceptions on the issue. The fact that the similar situation in El Salvador was so comparable proves a great basis to highlight Chomsky and Herman’s theories. Also when talking about if ‘the propaganda model’ is relevant today in which Herman talking on whether it is still relevant claims that â€Å"The applicability of the propaganda model in these and other cases seems clear. I agree that ‘the propaganda model’ is most certainly applicable today. To what extent remains to be seen through research, though I disagree that the internet has brought on an even greater level of control to mass media, although it is worth noting that the internet was a lot different back in the 90’s when Herman talked about it. | Bibliography http://www. chomsky. info/onchomsky/2002—-. htm http://ics. leeds. ac. uk/papers/vp01. cfm? outfi t=pmtfolder=30paper=1227 The Social and Political Thought of Noam Chomsky  by Alison Edgley http://anarchism. pageabode. com/afaq/secD3. html http://www. chomsky. info/onchomsky/20031209. htm http://www. williamgbecker. com/nicaragua_1984_election. php http://www. chomsky. info/onchomsky/198901–. htm Washington’s war on Nicaragua  by Holly Sklar http://www. williamgbecker. com/lasa_1984. pdf http://www. fifth-estate-online. co. uk/comment/Mullen_paper_FEO. pdf http://www. llc. manchester. ac. uk/research/projects/etrist/conferences/fileuploadmax10mb,169799,en. pdf How to cite Political Economy and the Propaganda Model of Noam Chomsky, Papers

Music Types Essay Example For Students

Music Types Essay Pop music a type of music, usually played on electronic instruments, that is popular with many people because it consists of short songs with a strong beat and simple tunes that are easy to remember. Pop music is often simply called pop. Rock n roll a type of music that was popular in the sass and combined simple blues structures played on guitars with strong regular beats soul music a type of African-American music that developed in the sass, combining r amp; b with pop, rock n roll, and gospel styles. Soul music usually has a strong beat and places emphasis on singing. It is often simply called soul. Swing a type of Jazz dance music that was popular in the sass and sass, played by large groups of musicians and combining simple tunes with more complicated improvisation punk noun a type of music that developed in the sass from rock and roll, consisting of simple tunes played quickly and loudly on electronic instruments and words that often express anger against society gospel a type of Christian music influenced by soul and r and b that developed in the churches that black people went to in the south of the US in the past. It is sung by roofs of singers who have powerful voices folk music traditional music from a particular country, region, or community, especially music developed by people who were not professional musicians gangs rap Music Types By rammed violence, and sex History Of pop Music The term pop song is first recorded as being used in 1926, in the sense of a piece of music having popular appeal. Hatch and Milliard indicate that many events in the history of recording in the sass can be seen as the birth of the modern pop music industry, including in country, blues and hillbillys music. Pop is short for popular, and its remained the defining term for the ever-changing music favored by the public. Although not specifically applied until the middle of the 20th century, pop music as such can be traced by a few decades before that. Things changed with the advent of recording, early in the 20th century. With that, music had the chance to be much more widely disseminated. Records, played at 78 RPM on wind-up gramophones, were relatively cheap. Len America, that led to a breed of professional songwriters in New York who wrote pieces intended to be recorded and sell well Tin Pan Alley. They were largely hacks, but did produce some beautiful material. The first major pop stars as such were the crooners of the sass and ass. Binge Crosby sold millions of records, as did Frank Sinatra (arguably the first modern pop star, with screaming teenage female fans the bobbysoxers), and in Britain, AY Bowl. Curiously, pop music charts as such didnt exist until 1952, when the first Top Twenty was recorded. It came at an interesting time, as teenagers really came into being. Historically thered been no transitional period between childhood and adulthood. Now, after World War II, that seemed to begin, imported from America, and in skiffs, an interpretation of American folk music (personified by Lonnie Donovan), teens found their music. Rockville brought much more of that, and Elvis Presley became a global star, the biggest of the late sass and early sass. But he would find himself supplanted by the Battles, who revolutionized pop by writing their own material, instigating a fashion that remains undiminished. The Battles set the standard for pop music, and it remains undiminished Battles has become a standard descriptive adjective. From 1962 until their break up in 1970 they dominated the charts in Britain and America. The Battles influenced a generation more than one, really with their melodies and harmonies, and that was apparent in the sass, when pop careened through several styles, from the Glam Rock of T. Rexes to the raw fire of punk. But the biggest pop star to emerge from the period was a singer and pianist, Elton John, whose popularity has remained constant. The idea of artists writing their own material remained in the wake of the FAA Four, although professional songwriters stayed in demand for those enable to pen a tune. .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a , .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .postImageUrl , .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a , .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a:hover , .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a:visited , .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a:active { border:0!important; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a:active , .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u45599421baa5e598940868caa605b47a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Musical Theater EssayFrom the early days of rock there had been manufactured stars people taken on board for a pretty face rather than any innate talent, and made into stars by producers. It had happened to Adam Faith, Alvin Stardust and many others, most of whom only enjoyed short careers. The sass proved a moribund decade for pop. Styles came and went, but it was an era short on memorable music. Only Wham! (and later George Michael) emerged as true pop acts. A group of young male singers was assembled for their looks, given catchy songs and arrangements and pushed to fame. It happened to East 17 and, most memorably, Take That. America saw how it worked and gave the world the Backstreet Boys and N Sync, and for a few years it worked very well, selling millions of records. But like any fashion, it passed. A female version, the Spice Girls, was briefly huge. Notably, the only ones to come out of this and sustain a solo career was Robbie Williams from Take That and Justine Timberline from N Sync. America tried a similar tactic with female pop stars, and both Maria Carrey and Brittany Spears became massive manufactured stars, followed, to a lesser degree, by Christina Agiler.

Sociology and Cultural Diversity free essay sample

Cultural diversity is a reality and here to stay, it will not vanish overnight. People do things and think differently in diverse parts of the continents. In the same context, bringing up African children in foreign nations is not easy as the children face cultural shock (Nwokeafor, 2008). The parents or guardians must develop strategies that bring out mutual understanding between the children and the host culture. Surveys have indicated that people originating from diverse cultures share particular basic concepts, the difference originates with the way people view the basic concepts in different perspectives and angles; which shapes the way people behave either rationally or irrationally depending on the context (Nwokeafor, 2008). African continent engage indirect communication, which is in contrast with the Western style that engage direct communication. There are a number of merits and demerits attached to cultural diversity. Some of the benefits African children face in foreign cultures identify with: Improved morale, exposure to broader perspectives, labor resources, earlier exposure to global impact and enhanced community relationships (Nwokeafor, 2008). We will write a custom essay sample on Sociology and Cultural Diversity or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Some of the demerits African children face in foreign cultures identify with language barriers, civic disengagement and social tension (Nwokeafor, 2008). Avoiding cultural diversity is not the solution; people should develop mechanisms of adapting to cultural diversity. It is true that cultural diversity has its benefits and its own shares of challenges, majority of the benefits are accustomed to the developed nations as compared to the poor nations. In the same context, raising African children in foreign land calls for adaptation to the new and host culture (Nwokeafor, 2008). Changing cultural orientation takes time and commitment. The world is more and more facing cultural diversity as people live in multicultural societies.

Portia in Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice

Portia in Shakespeare's 'The Merchant of Venice' Portia in Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice is one of the Bards most beloved characters. The Love Test Portias fate is determined by the love test her father gives to her suitors. She is unable to choose her own suitor but is forced to marry whoever passes. She has wealth but has no control over her own destiny. When Bassanio passes the test, Portia immediately agrees to divest all her riches, property, and power over to him in order to be his loving and dutiful wife. She is passed from one man’s control- her father’s- to another- her husband’s: As from her lord, her governor, her king.Myself and what is mine to you and yoursIs now converted: but now I was the lordOf this fair mansion, master of my servants,Queen oer myself. And even now, but now,This house, these servants and this same myselfAre yours, my lord’s (Act 3 Scene 2, 170-176). One wonders what is in it for her... other than companionship and, hopefully, love? Let’s hope that her father’s test really is foolproof, in that the suitor is proven to love her through his choice. As an audience, we know the lengths to which Bassanio has gone to win her hand, so this gives us hope that Portia will be happy with Bassanio. Her name is Portia, nothing undervaluedTo Cato’s daughter, Brutus’ Portia.Nor is the wide world ignorant of her worth,For the four winds blow in from every coastRenowned suitors, and her sunny locksHang on her temples like a golden fleece,Which makes her seat of Belmont Colchis’ strand,And many Jasons come in quest of her (Act 1 Scene 1, 165-172). Let’s hope Bassanio is not just after her money but, in choosing the lead casket, we are to assume he is not. Character Revealed We later discover Portia’s true grit, resourcefulness, intelligence, and wit through her dealings with Shylock in court, and many a modern audience might lament her fate at having to go back to court and be the dutiful wife she promised to be. It is also a pity that her father did not see her true potential in this way and, in doing so, he may not have determined his ‘love test’ necessary but trusted his daughter to make the right choice off her own back. Portia ensures that Bassanio is made aware of her alter ego; in disguise as the judge, she makes him give her the ring that she has given him. In doing so, she can prove that it was she posing as the judge and that it was she who was able to save his friend’s life and, to and extent, Bassanios life and reputation. Her position of power and substance in that relationship is therefore established. This sets a precedent for their life together and allows the audience some comfort in thinking that she will maintain some power in that relationship. Shakespeare and Gender Portia is the heroine of the piece when all the men in the play have failed, financially, by the law, and by their own vengeful behavior. She swoops in and saves everyone from themselves. However, she is only able to do this by dressing up as a man. As Portia’s journey demonstrates, Shakespeare recognizes the intellect and abilities that women have but concedes that they can only be demonstrated when on a level playing field with men. Many of Shakespeare’s women show their wit and cunning when they are disguised as men. Rosalind as Ganymede in As You Like It is another example. As a woman, Portia is submissive and obedient; as the judge and as a man, she demonstrates her intelligence and her brilliance. She is the same person but is empowered by dressing as a man and, in doing so, she hopefully gains the respect and equal footing she deserves in her relationship: If you had known the virtue of the ring,Or half her worthiness that gave that ring,Or your own honour to contain the ring,You would not then have parted with the ring (Act 5 Scene 1, 199-202).

Challenges of Women of Color - Smart Custom Writing Samples

Challenges of Women of Color - Smart Custom Writing Investments in Canadian business in the business cycleIntroduction Over the recent past, many analysts have argued from the opportunity cost models of growth that recessions are the best times when firms should engage in productivity and improving activities due to the temporal substitution.  Ã‚   In this essay, we will look at the characterization of the business cycles; recession and expansion, and the best time to invest in the two cycles. We will closely analyze the implications of the financial cycles to the Canadian economy. Investing in productivity A recession is defined as a period of time when there’s an extended period of significant decline in economic activities of a country resulting to even a negative GDP growth. During this time, there is also falling of real incomes, weakening sales and production and faltering confidence by not only consumers but also businesses. On the part of investments, there is a heightened risk aversion by investors thus waiting to see. But again, recessions does lead to recoveries later follow a predictable pattern of behavior.   We will focus on the importance of investing in productivity in Canada’s economy during recession and expansionary periods focusing especially on some of the elements that have or will greatly contribute to the productivity growth in Canada. Productivity is crucial as it helps to measure each unit of input and the resultant output from that input. The reason why productivity is important is that its measures will tell how much output has been produced from using tangible and intangible inputs. The tangible inputs include skilled workers and capital equipments while intangible inputs include technological advances as well as entrepreneurial and managerial know-how. By finding new and more efficient ways to use these inputs, then productivity will increase over time (Claessens S., Kose A. and Torrones M. 2008). During the recent financial turmoil in the US, it led to decline in house prices which later turned into a credit crunch with big losses in the equity markets. This problem then spread to other countries and Canada was not spared. This then led to a crisis debate on the impact it had on the real economy. These developments led to questions on how the financial sector is linked to the real economy during recession times. And so, how do financial variables and macroeconomic behave during recessions and asset price busts.   Then what is the best time to invest in these two scenarios? We will answer the question by analyzing the between key macro-economical and financial variables in the business cycles in Canada. We will thus analyze implications during recession and during expansionary periods (Claessens S., Kose A. and Torrones M. 2008). A business cycle as viewed by Keynesian interprets recessions as those periods in which the utilization of productive resources is inefficiency is low. For expansions, they are viewed as time when the level of economic activities of a country approaches its social optimum. This will mean that business cycles will be associated with in a way with variations over time in order to evaluate the efficiency of the average resources allocated (Jenkins P. 2010).   Canada has experienced a total of three recessions since 1960-2007. We can have a great insight if we describe the macro-economic variables during recessions and compare them with those during expansion periods. The quarterly median decline in output during the recession periods is approximately -0.5% and during expansionary periods is 0.9%. Thus from the above declines, it means that during recession there is a 105% decline in output per quarter as compared to the expansion periods. Recession dynamics (Claessens S., Kose A. and Torrones M. p20) During recession, the government can run an expansionary fiscal policy which will help to restore output to normalcy. This will also help put the unemployed people back to work. Recessions more often than not results in decline of international trade. During this time, credit grows but by a small percentage with both house and equity prices contacting greatly during the recession. Due to the volatile nature of equity, their decline and in prices is more than twice that of house prices. For some macro-economic variables, they show signs of a slowdown before the real recession starts. An example in point is residential investments that typically decline before the start of recession. These types of investments often give a negative year changes in the first quarter of a recession. For the industrial production, they show weakness signs early and often register a big decline before the start of recession. As recession starts to hit, inflation continues to increase sharply and unemployment starts to hit and during the recession onset, inflation rate declines but unemployment rate increases. It is a business fact that during recession that investment is volatile than the output and usually investments decline in most recessions but for consumption it contracts. These global landscapes have a lot for the Canadian business to learn from. Thus the private sector ought to replace public support as the main driver for a sustained economic growth. Significant restructuring should be done in many of the sectors of the economy. The export sector of Canada has to adapt to a strong Canadian dollar. There is some evidence on the role of fiscal policy being a source of an increasing macro-economic stability. Explanations put forward account to some structural shifts in nature: that is shifting from manufacture of goods to services, better access to financial services and improving in inventory management.   From Keynesian emphasis of on public works, it is understood that once a cyclical boom is allowed to develop and investment opportunities have been exhausted, there is little that can be done to stimulate the private sector to spend thus compensation is sought by stimulating other sources of investments. In a federal state like Canada, proper planning and timely implementation of projects requires all levels of the government to be involved. During this time, public investment lies in the jurisdiction of municipalities and provinces. Although intergovernmental collaboration in Canada has never been such successful, public works implementation should be insisted as it will be used to reduce expansion. During a boom, demand becomes saturated and stimulants are usually not effective. Residential construction during these times should also be emphasized although not as effective as public works. This will compensate for the usually cyclical fluctuations of business investments. While addressing executives in Toronto earlier February 2009, the chairman of General Electric Co. said that during recessions, businesses should invest in technology and innovations as their competitive advantage grows. Due to globalization and regulations regulating international businesses, finding and using a technology that utilizes these complexes and market development that will put the Canadian business on a growth path. Research shows that continuing to invest in all sectors of the economy especially in transformational research and innovation will be central to the advancement of Canada’s place in the world markets. Thus clearly, the country’s business needs to do more on research and innovations during recessions to keeps pace with its peers when recession is over and entering the expansion cycle (Carlson D. 2009). Thus for a country like Canada to go forward, the private sector demand ought to replace public support as the one that drives the Canadian economy. The new international economic order also has many opportunities that these businesses should cash in during the bad times of recessions. There is a strong demand in the world market during recessions and the important issue that faces the Canadian businesses is how to deal with these deals and challenges that are posed during economic downturns. The opportunities are substantial like that of developing innovative products and services while optimizing the global and local mix of activities.  Ã‚   Much of the research has been devoted to measurements of business cycles and the different approaches that have been proposed by the government. This study is based on the classical definition of business cycle. Thus a cycle is defined as an expansion that occurs in many of the economic activities which is later followed by a recession. A recession starts when the economy reaches its peak and ends when the economy is at its lowest (Jenkins P. 2010).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Conclusion The above essay provides a comprehensive analysis of the linkages between the main macro-economic variables and the financial cycles touching especially to the Canadian businesses. Focusing on these behaviors of these variables around recessions and during expansions we can conclude on several issues. A typical recession lasts four quarters and usually is accompanied drop in output of about 2%. We have seen that recessions are associated with housing and credit crunches, whereby residential investments fall sharply during this time.   Therefore the government and businesses should take the right policy measures to mitigate recession.  Ã‚   Direct support should be offered in the housing sector while a mixture of accommodating monetary and fiscal policies should be offered by the government to local businesses to make them competitive in the global market. In conclusion therefore, we could encourage Canadian businesses to invest in productivity during recessions as the economy wil l most definitely rebound and start growing again.

Evaluate Consumer behavior and Identify possible segmentation options Term Paper

Evaluate Consumer behavior and Identify possible segmentation options - Term Paper Example Each product line is then segmented further on the basis of customer comfort which includes â€Å"compression†, â€Å"fitted† and â€Å"relaxed† (Forbes.com). Each of these serves a unique benefit. For instance, the â€Å"fitted† line in particularly suited to athletics who need greater body flexibility, and hence, tighter clothing. At present, the accessories segment is classified into bags, hats as well as gloves for sports that incorporate â€Å"moisture-wicking† fabrics and temperature-control technologies (Hallett). These products claim the benefit of keeping the customer cool and dry in situations where moisture may cause body temperature to heat up resulting in excessive sweating. Therefore, by controlling temperature the products provide customers with the benefit of maintaining their highest and best performance for an extended period of time. This is because users are able to ‘use’ their muscles for longer periods of time (Under Armour). The long sleeves provide protection against cuts, wounds and abrasions that are common in sports requiring high friction. Additionally, to users (performers) who desire to look aesthetically pleasing, the compression technology provides the benefit of enhancing visibility of body muscles. Furthermore, the â€Å"PolyArmour† technology provide s the benefit of protecting the users’ body from UV rays of the sun (Northern Athletic). This acts as a sunscreen averting premature ageing. As far as possible demographic and psychographic segmentation is concerned, the company can use its anti-sweating technology to provide other products such as deodorants that block body odor resulting from stress and sweat. This product can be targeted to virtually anyone, primarily women and men aged 19 and above who are likely to experience hormonal changes that are conducive to more sweating. Furthermore, recognizing the fact that the inclusion of women in sports such as

Bermuda Triangle Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bermuda Triangle - Research Paper Example The number of accidents will be illustrated and its causes and scientific facts will be submitted to have a clear understanding of the mystery. Discussions of fallacies come first followed by scientific explanations. Background First, let us have an idea where Bermuda Triangle is located. Thru the map, Bermuda Triangle has an imaginary line located off the South-Eastern coast of the United States and in the Atlantic Ocean. The three corners of the triangle are: San Juan, Puerto Rico, Miami (Florida and Bermuda (North of ) Atlantic Islands.(Battcharya, Raj.)    The definite area is not defined, but some says it is around 500,000 to 1,500,000 square miles. Battcharya, Raj recalls, at the time of coining a name or this place, it was named after Miami, but people of Florida objected for fear that tourists might be afraid to come. The same objections were raised by Puerto Rico too. No one seems to question when it was given the name Bermuda, so from then on the name Bermuda is retained. (Rattchaya, Raj) Several scientists have advanced their theories about the mystery of Bermuda Triangle. But the list of lost planes and ships are long that the theory or mystery is quite intriguing. This is not a complete one, but after exhaustive research I have gathered there is about 1,000 numbers of lost vessels and planes in this triangle, but names are no longer listed. The loss started in 1875 up to 1975 and after that only one incident has been reported lately. (India TV). List of vessels and planes lost in the Bermuda triangle are shown below. (not-exhaustive) Flight 19: The Avenger planes of Flight-19 took off from the U.S Naval Base of Florida for a routine training session, but never returned. PBM Martin Mariner: When the hopes for Flight-19 was quickly fading, two Martin Mariner planes were sent by US Navy to search them out. One came back, but strangely the other didn't. Tudor Star Tiger: Star Tiger, a Tudor Mark-IV aircraft disappeared in Bermuda Triangle shortly befo re it was about to land at the Bermuda airport Flight DC-3: The flight DC-3 NC16002 disappeared when it was only 50 miles south of Florida and about to land in Miami.   Flight 441: The flight 441, a Super Constellation Naval Airliner disappeared in October 1954 : USS Cyclops: Disappearance of the carrier ship U.S.S. Cyclops in Bermuda Triangle has been one of the greatest mysteries of the sea. Apparently it seemed to be a sudden thunderstorm that had disintegrated the plane. Mary Celeste - The Ghost Ship: Known as one of the ghost ships of Bermuda Triangle, Mary Celeste had many misadventures even before her mystery voyage in 1872. Ellen Austin: The Ellen Austin, an American schooner, met with another ship in Bermuda Triangle. The other ship that was moving in full speed, strangely had nobody on board. USS Cyclops: Disappearance of the carrier ship U.S.S. Cyclops in Bermuda Triangle has been one of the greatest mysteries of the sea USS Scorpion: USS Scorpion (SSN-589) was a Nuclea r powered submarine of United States Navy that disappeared in Bermuda Triangle area in May 1968 source: Battcharya, Raj Note that most of these losses happened decades ago, the last one was in 1997and news about further losses is no longer found. However, a recent news about the loss of the plane boarded by designer Vittorio and five others that appeared on January 9, 2013 has deepened another round of

Moss and McAdams Accounting Firm Essay Example for Free

Moss and McAdams Accounting Firm Essay 1. At the end of the case if you were Palmer, how would you respond? It was clear from the beginning everyone involved could have handled things more professionally in order to maximize time, and resources while maintaining a healthy and productive work environment for all employees. From the start of the project it was evident that Olds knowledge and skills were definitely in demand. Because his expertise was so in demand, when met with an organizational structure that had an obvious weak matrix structure, it caused great adversity. In this case we learn Ruby Sands had the role of functional manager and therefore ultimately made a decision that affected Palmer’s account. As soon as Palmer recognized the problems he should have addressed the issue then and presented the possible risk, moving forward the best option for Palmer is to find a suitable replacement for Olds. And accept the fact that valuable employees leave projects all the time for one reason or another. Also, Palmer should address his concerns regarding the situation on a whole to include Crosby’s unwillingness to be a team player as a way to avoid similar situations happening in the firm’s future. In conclusion, Palmer is the project manager; it is his responsibility to handle all aspects of the project to include communication. Effective communication would have lead to a better outcome. 2. Discuss what Palmer could do, if anything, to avoid losing Olds: Project managers are ultimately responsible for performance. Therefore it is Palmer’s responsibility to ensure that appropriate protocol is made between the time, cost and performance requirements of the project. In addition, the project manager is also responsible for the aspects of Leadership, such as problem solving, teamwork, negative politics and customer expectations. To avoid losing Olds, Palmer should have realized the struggles Olds was faced with, such as working extra hours to accommodate both projects and accounts, as a result the impact that it had on work-life balance took its toll on Olds and put him in a difficult position.

Financial Accounting Essay -- Business and Management Studies:

Financial Accounting Financial accounting or ‘book-keeping’ is the process of recording financial transactions from the day-to-day operation of a business. The sale of goods to a customer and the subsequent settlement of the debt are two examples of financial transactions. Sales Accounting When credit sales are made to customers, a record needs to be kept of amounts owing and paid. Payment is normally requested with an invoice. An invoice usually gives details of goods supplied, quantities, prices and VAT. Credit sales are usually made on weekly a basis, which means that the customer has to pay within that period to obtain the discounts, if any offered. Overdue payments need to be chased, so sales accounting systems normally produce reports analysing the indebtedness of different customers. Debt control is vital to business profitability and computerised systems can produce prompt and up-to-date reports as a by-product of the main application. Human Resources --------------- The human resources (personnel) function is responsible for the selection (usually by interview), recruitment, training and development of staff. Personnel records on employees will store all the information needed by Salaries and Wages to make the correct payments to employees; this will include details of, for example, gross salary, tax code, statutory sick pay and holiday entitlement. Depending on the size of the organisation, information may also be held concerning: qualifications, courses attended; and career development plans. Design ------ The design function is present where an organisation develops its own products and services; a trader who simply buys and sells goods has no need of a design team unless designing logo’s etc which maybe carried out by another firm. Design is part of the research and development (R&D) function, which is vital to organisations wishing to radically develop their product range. The nature of design teams depends on the product or service being designed. The skills and talents of a car design team are clearly very different from those of a team designing a cover for a magazine. Production Markets for a business’s products should ideally, drive the production function. In other words, it should be geared to produce the necessary mix and quantities of products required by customers. If goods ar... ...ons need specialist staff to develop, introduce, maintain and update the various systems that make use of information technology. The responsibilities of ICT Services are much broader than those traditional held by wholly centralised computer services or data processing departments because communication is a larger part of IT with the introduction of the internet and E-mail amongst other things.. The development of cheaper and more powerful microcomputer systems has resulted in computer facilities being distributed more widely. For this reason, ICT Services needs to provide a much more flexible service and support user systems at the point of use. For example, uses of network workstations need support when equipment, such as a shared printer, breaks down or they may require help in the use of software on the network. This contrasts with a centralised department, which holds all the computer equipment, carries out all computer processing and restricts user access to specialised applications, run through dedicated terminals. ICT Services may be known variously as Computer Services, Management Information Services or less commonly now, the Data Processing Department.

Ms-05 Solved Assignment 2013

To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in MS-05 SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2013 Presented by http://www. myignou. in/ Course Code Course Title Assignment Code Coverage : : : : MS – 5 Management of Machines and Materials MS-05/TMA/SEM-I/2013 All Blocks Note: Attempt all the questions and submit this assignment on or before 30th April, 2013 to the coordinator of your study center. Question 1. The Role of Industrial Eng neeri g M â€Å"Industrial Eng ne ring is co cerned with the design, improvement and installation of integrated systems f men, materials and equipment.It draws upon specialized know dg and skills i math matical, physical and social sciences together with the principle and me hods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems. † It can therefore be seen that industrial engineers are designers of management systems and industrial engineering approach integrates various approaches such as op erations research, systems analysis, behavioral science etc. towards the integrated design of organizations.In this book many industrial engineering techniques will be used in various units which help us in better management of production systems. Operations Management – An Overview The Role of Models yI Indian Institution of Indus ial En ineering (IIIE) has adopted the following definition of Industrial Engineering: G Methods and techniques of scientific managemen hav tremendous role to play in helping us to make rational and logical decisions the context of production and operations management.Through scientifi m h ds to ls and techniques of industrial engineering and operations research along with behavioral science we can look at all facets of the problems and evaluate the onsequ nces of our actions before arriving at a decision. These techniques thu reinforce the s bjective or intuitive judgment and contribute to better management N O The scientific method for Operations management is growing pop arity because it allows for organizational decisions—whether by b siness or government—to be formulated under more rigorous considerations. U Discuss the role of Scientific methods in Operations Manageme t. To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in Models are representation of systems with a view to explain certain aspects of system's behaviour. Generally a mathematical model is preferred in decision-making because it tries to explain system's objectives and function in terms of decision variables subject to our control as well as non-controllable parameters due to environment or resource constraints etc. Thus a simplified form of a model is: E = f (xj, yi) Where E =Measure of effectiveness or objective function xj =Controllable (decision), variable, j = 1 †¦ yj =Non-controllable parameter, i =1 †¦ m Thus a model provides us a cause-effect relationship so that we can evaluate ur alternative courses of action on the basis of our objectives and choose an optim l (best under the circumstances) strategy to maximise our effectivene s Thus mod s provide a valuable tool to compare our options and thus improve the q lity of decisions and provide us a better insight into our decision rocess Howe r it must be noted that models are a means to achieve an end (bet r decisions) nd not an end in itself.We must choose a simple, valid and logical mo el of the dec ion situation. A large number of model based techniques have b en de loped in th subject called `Operations Research' (OR) which help in mathemat al con eptual sation of many decision-making problems relevant to production/opera ions management. Some very versatile and powerful techniques like linea prog ming queuing theory and simulation have been applied extensively to st dy various problem areas in production management. Some of these will be d cribed, though briefly, in appropriate units in this book.The Role of Computers M In a large sized problem, a computer becomes a very efficient tool in problem solving and evaluation of alternati es. A b g size linear programming or simulation problem can be efficiently solved on omputers. Due to fast developments in computering facilities and a plication oftware, many OR models can he implemented via computers. Compu rs also ha e tremendous role in management information systems to provide us ful, relev nt and timely information for planning, monitoring and co tro f production systems-thus providing decision support through informati n.The Role of B havioural Science Since people are integral part of our production system, understanding of human behaviour is very important so that managers can evaluate the consequences of their actions on human relations, morale, motivation and productivity. Supervisor's relationship with his subordinates, organisation structure, individual and group behaviour, work habits and attitude, incentives, participation in decision-making, performance appraisal sy stems have impact on worker morale and motivation. Behavioural science provides us some insight on these aspects and therefore has a role to play in production and operations management. I G N O U 2 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in =============================================================== Question 2. Explain the product selection and stages involved therein. Product selection is an ongoing process in any organisation. In fact, as the environment changes, as new technology is developed and as new tastes are formed, the product should benefit from these developments; otherwise what is perceived to have added value today may not be perceived as such tomorrow. For example, jute has been in use as a packing medium for a long time.However, with changes in technology and consumer taste, the same product is no more perceived to ave added value and therefore, its demand has reduced. M Produ ibi ity The product election process is a highly integrative process. Thus product function, cost, quality and reliability are some of the inputs to this decision. The producibility of a product/service measures the ease and the speed with which the output can be produced. The specialised equipment, specialised skills and specialised toolings, facilitate in switching production from one product to another etc. nd are thus important ‘ factors to assess producibility. It is also important to look at the complete range of products produced because a new product may either use the capacity of processes/sub-processes already established or may require the establishment of capacity of some processes/sub-processes. A family of-similar products is much yI Product selection is a strategic dec ion, thereby involves other functional areas like marketing, research and dev lopment and as well also the top management therein.The operation managem nt function provides vital inputs regarding the production of the product o se vice in the e decisions making. G Produc t selection is a strategic decision for any organisati n. Such decisi s a long term decisions and the organisation commits itself to the product/pro ucts selected for a long time to come. What products to produce-in w at form and w th what features-is very important because many other de sions- or example he technology used, the capacity of the productive system, the locat n of production facilities, the organisation of the production function the planning and control systems, etc. re dependent on this. The competitiveness and rofi bility o a firm depend in part on the design and quality of the products and serv es that it produces, and on the cost of production. The design of a product or service may make it expensive to produce and a change in design may make it possible to duce he same in a less expensive way. Similarly, one design of a produ or serv ce m y require large and expensive additions to capacity of some pro ess whereas a change in design may make it possible to produce the same with e isting c pacity. N O U A Strategic Decision M yI G N O U To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in The output ideas thus generated are then screened where their match with corporate objectives and policies is studied and their market viability is established. A detailed economic analysis is then performed to determine the probable profitability of the product or service. For non-profit organisations, this takes the form of a cost-benefit analysis. This is followed by development of the product or service from a concept to a tangible entity and finally by design and testing.No Smooth Sequence Although Figure I depicts product selection as a sequential process where one stage follows another, in reality, the process may not be so smooth as shown. Thus, economic analysis may have to be done after output development if reliab e cost estimates are not available at the earlier stage. Similarly, new product featur may be added at any of the above stages, thereb y initiating a whole new cycle. Final y as product selection is an ongoing process, there is no finality to the pr cess since as some new product ideas are being processed, still new ideas enter the utput sele tion process and this may go on and on.The product selection rocess herefo en ures a continuous match between what is demanded and what i produced. In some cases, the production process has also to be des gned along w h the product or service. This has to be done, for example, when the m ket viabilit of the product depends on low cost and so the production process h s to be decid d along with the product design. Or take the case of another product whe e it is felt imperative to obtain a large market share right from the in ial l h It may become necessary to establish a large capacity for the production pr cess right from the beginning.The production process has to be design d along with he product in such a case. The previous section highlig ted th fact th an output possibilit y has to cross several hurdles before it enters e market as a commercial product or service. The new idea mortality curve p esents e same in a graphical manner. Figure II shows the mortality curve for a hypothetical group of fifty chemical product-ideas. Although the p duct id s ar hypothetical, still the stage-wise mortality as well as the time frame sho n is quite i dicative.Figure II assumes that after three years of research fifty po enti chemica product-ideas are available for consideration. Initial scre ning r duces this number to about half and after economic analysis, by the end of year f ur the number of potential products decreases to nine. The mortality of deas continues over time and by the end of five-and-a-half years, at the completion of he product and process development stages, the number has already fallen to about five.Design and testing reduces this further to about three and by the end of construction, market development and commercialisation, just about one suc cessful product is left.. Figure 11 is based on international experience, and situation in India has not been tested empirically. Thus, the mortality curve should be treated as an indicative proposition in the Indian context. M yI G New-Idea Mortality Curve N O U 5 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in M The curve also show that co verting product ideas into marketable products is a slow process.For chemical produc on an average it takes six years to commercialise a product after the ini al research has been completed, as is shown by Figure II. At the end of t all, a product ommerc ally launched may not turn out to be successful and the mortali y may exte d to the product as well. The actual figures in Figure †¢II are only indicative and within an industry firm's differ in the speed at which they can convert a product idea into a commercial product. Some organisations are more innovative than others and they are always ahead with more new product ideas.Similarly , some organisations are more risk-taking than others and attach a high priority to being a pioneer with new products than others who are relatively risk-averse and would like to do a more thorough job of screening, economic analysis, product development, design and testing and would perhaps also wait-it-out to see how some others have fared with similar products. =============================================================== yI G 6 N O U To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in Question 3. Define Job Design. How has management viewed job design since the industrial revolution?JOB DESIGN is the process of putting together various elements to form a job, bearing in mind organizational and individual worker requirements, as well as considerations of health, safety, and ergonomics. The scientific management approach of Frederick Winslow Taylor viewed job design as purely mechanistic, but the later human relations movement rediscovered the importance of workers' relationsh ip to their work and stressed the importance of job satisfaction. Job design refers to the way that a set of tasks, or an entire job, is organized. Job design helps to determine.It takes into account all factors which affect the work, and organizes the content and tasks so that he whole job is less likely to be a risk to the employee. Job design involves administrative eas such as: job rotation, job enlargement, task/machine pacing, work breaks, and work ng hours. A well designed job will encourage a variety of ‘good' body posi ons, have re sonable strength requirements, require a reasonable amount of mental activ y and he p foster feelings of achievement and self-esteem. Job design refers to the way that a set of tasks, or an ent e job, is orga ized.Job design helps to determine: what tasks are done, how the tasks are done, how many tasks are done, and in what order the tasks are done. It takes into account all factors which affect e work and organizes the content and tasks s o that the whole job is less like to be a risk t the employee. Job design involves administrative areas such as: job rotation, job enlargement, task/machine pacing, work breaks, and working hours A well designed job ill encourage a variety of ‘good' body positions, have reasonable streng requirem nts, require a reasonable amount of mental activity, and help foster feelings of achie ement and self-esteem.In productio and operations, Job design follows the planning and designing of product, process, and equipment. Job design specifies the content of each job and determines how work is distributed within the organization. Management viewed job design since the industrial revolution in the approaches to Job Design USING SOCIO TECHNICAL SYSTEMS There are three important approaches to job design, viz. , Engineering approach, Human approach and The Job characteristic approach. Engineering Approach M yI G N O U To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in The most important s ingle element in the Engineering approaches, proposed by FW Taylor and others, was the task idea, â€Å"The work of every workman is fully planned out by the management at least one day in advance and each man receives in most cases complete written instructions, describing in detail the task which he is to accomplish . . . This task specifies not only what is to be done but how it is to be done and the exact time allowed for doing it. The principles offered by scientific management to job design can be summarized thus: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Work should be scientifically studied. As advocated fragmentation and reutilization of work to reap the advantages of specialisation. Work should be arranged so that workers can be efficient. Employees selected for work should be matched to the demands of the job. Employees should be trained to perform the job. Monetary compensation should be used to reward succes ful performa ce of the job. Two types of facto viz. ) motivator s like achievements, recognition, work itself, responsibility, d anceme t a d growth and (ii) hygiene factors (which merely maintain the employee o th job and in the organization) like working conditions, organisational polici inter-personn l relations, pay and job security. The employee is dissatisfied with the job f maintenance factors to the required degree are not introduced into the job. But, the employee may ot be satisfied even if the required maintenance factors are provided. The employe will be satisfied with his job and he will be more productive if motivators are introduced into the job content.As such, he asserts that the job designer has to introduce hygienic factors adequately to reduce dissatisfaction and build motivating factors. Thus, THE emphasis is on the psychological needs of the employees in designing jobs. The Job Characteristics Approach M yI G The human relations approach r cognised the ed to design jobs in an interesting manner. In the past two decade much w rk has been directed to changing jobs so that job incumbents can satisfy th r needs for growth, recognition and responsibilility, enhancing need satisfactio through what is c lled job enrichment.One widely publicised approach to job enrichment ses w t is alled job characteristics model and this has been explained separately n the nsuing section. N Human Relations Approach O These principles to job design seem to be quite rational and appeal g bec e they point towards increased organisational performance. Specia isation and outinisation over a period of time result in job incumbents becoming exper rather quick y, leading to higher levels of output. Despite the assumed gains in fficien y, behavi ural scientists have found that some job incumbents dislike specialised and routin j bs. UThe Job Characteristics Theory states that employees will work hard when they are rewarded for the work they do and when the work gives them satisfaction. Hence, they suggest that motivation, satisfacti on and performance should be integrated in the job 8 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in design. According to this approach, any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions which are defined as follows: (a) Skill variety: The degree to which the job requires that workers use a variety of different activities, talents and skills in order to successfully complete the job requirements. b) Task identity: The degree to which the job allows workers to complete whole tasks from start to finish, rather than disjointed portions of the job. (c) Task significance: The degree to which the job significantly impacts the lives of others both within and outside the workplace. (d) Autonomy: The degree to which the job allows workers freedom in planning and scheduling and the methods used to complete the job. (e) Feedback: The degree to which the job itself provides workers with lear, direct and understandable knowledge of their performance.M Question 4. ============== = =============================================== Discuss the va iation in the approach of planning and controlling of mass, batch and job shop production. Mass production (also called flow production, repetitive flow production, series production, or serial production) is the production of large amounts of standardized products on production lines. It was popularized by Henry Ford in the early 20th century, notably in his Ford Model T. yIJobs that are high on motivating potential m st be h gh at least in one of the three factors that lead to meaningful work an must b hig in both autonomy and feedback and vice versa. These three critical psyc ological sta s lead to the outcome such as (a) high internal work motivation, (b) high gr wth satisfaction, (c) high quality work performance, (d) high general job satisfaction, (e) high work effectiveness and (f) low absenteeism and turnover The odel says that internal rewards are obtained by an individual when he learns t at he personally has performed well on a task that he cares about.G N The core job dimensions can be combined int a sin le predicti e index called the Motivating Potential Score. Its computation is as foll ws: Motivating Skill variety + Task identity + Task signific nce potential = x Autonomy x Feedback score O U All of the job dimensions impact workers psychologically. The irst three dimensions affect whether or not workers view their job as meaningful Autonomy determines the extent of responsibility workers feel. Feedback allows for eelings f sati facti n for a job well done by providing knowledge of results. To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in Mass production typically uses moving tracks or conveyor belts to move partially complete products to workers to perform simple repetitive tasks. This permits very high rates of production. Mass production is capital intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery in relation to workers. With fewer labour costs and a faster rate of produ ction, capital is increased while expenditure is decreased.However the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. Machinery for mass production such as robots and machine presses have high installation costs as well. Thus, mass production is ideally suited to serve large, relatively homogeneous populations of consumers, whose demand would satisfy the long production runs required by this method of manufacturing. As such, it is not surprising that, given a number of other factors, mass producti n first became prevalent in the United States.One of the descriptions of mass production is that the craftsmansh is in the wo kbench itself, not the training of the worker; rather than having a skilled wo ker measu e every dimension of each part of the product against the plans r the o her pa ts as it is being formed, there are jigs and gauge blocks that are ready t hand to e sure that the part is made to fit this set-up. It has already been checked hat the finis ed part will be to specifications to fit all the other finished parts – a d it w l be made quicker, with no time spent on finishing the parts to fit one another.This the sp cializ d capital required for mass production; each workbench is different and eac set of tools at each workbench limited to those necessary to make one p t. A ch of these parts is uniformly and consistently constructed, interchangeability o components is thus another hallmark of mass produced goods. Mass production systems are us ally organized into assembly lines. The assemblies pass by on a conveyor, or if they are h avy, hung fr m an overhead monorail. In a factory for a complex produc rather han one assembly line, there may be many auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies (i. . car engines or seats) to a backbone â€Å"main† assembly line. A di gram of a typical mass-production factory looks more l ike the skeleton of a fish than a sing e line. Batch production i a manufa uring method used to produce or process any product in batches as opposed a conti uous production process, or a one-off production. The primary ch racter stic of batch production is that all components are completed at a workstati n befo e hey move to the next one. Batch production is popular in bakeries and in the manufacture of sports shoes, pharmaceutical ingredients, inks, paints and adhesives.In th manufacture of inks and paints, a technique called a colour-run is used. A colour-run is where one manufactures the lightest color first, such as light yellow followed by the next increasingly darker colour such as orange, then red and so on until reaching black and then starts over again. This minimizes the cleanup and reconfiguring of the machinery between each batch. White (by which is meant opaque paint, not transparent ink) is the only colour that cannot be used in a colour run due to the fact that a smal l amount of white pigment can adversely affect the medium colours.M yI G N O U 10 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in There are inefficiencies associated with batch production. The production equipment must be stopped, re-configured, and its output tested before the next batch can be produced. Time between batches is known as ‘down time'. Batch production is useful for a factory that makes seasonal items or products for which it is difficult to forecast demand. Batch production has many â€Å"pros† and â€Å"cons† but is effective and used worldwide, mainly by larger businesses on higher profit margins.There are several advantages of batch production; it can reduce initial capital outlay because a single production line can be used to produce several products. As shown in the example, batch production can be useful for small businesses who cann t afford to run continuous production lines. Also, companies can use batch production as a rial run. I f a retailer buys a batch of a product that does not sell then the producer an cease production without having to sustain huge losses. The term Job Shop Production (JSP) describes a m nufact ing e viro ment that produces piece goods in small batches.It is a common manufactu ing environment in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The inc ming orders often differ in the number of ordered products, their design, process charac ristics (for example, routeings, operation processing times, and set up times), or ur ency. Becau of this variation the control of the material flows in this type of compan s is extremely complex. It can hardly be predicted how the production o ers ill be vided across the machines in future periods. A high demand on machines nd varying production orders cause long waiting times of orders on the shop floor.The d rect consequence is that lead times are long and unreliable, whereas nowadays sho nd rel able delivery times are required. Most of the problems in j ob pro uction a ise fr m the variety of jobs arriving and demanding individual processing equences on the scarce facilities in the job shop. Owing to these factors the jo shop chara erized by the following typical problems: complicated and unsystematic material flow patterns large in-process inventorie large waiting times for jobs large completi n times f r jobs unpredictable p ob ms owing o the large variety of tasks M Question 5Discuss the various methods for stores accounting and verification systems. Stores Accounting Systems Stores accounting is important from the point of view of estimating the cost of the product for pricing decisions. The costing of material has to be done both for the materials consumed in the production and estimating the value of materials held in stock. For the purpose of costing the receipt of materials, the factors that should be included yI G N O U 11 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in are material price, freight charges, insurance, duties, taxes, packaging charges etc.The prices quoted and accepted in purchase order may often be stated in various ways such as net prices, prices with discount terms, free on board, cost, insurance, freight, etc. All these factors should be appropriately accounted while costing for the incoming materials. Another important accounting is to be done for the issue to production and of the stocks held at the end of accounting period. Let us discuss some of the important and frequently used system for this purpose: a) FIFO System: This system known as First in First Out System is based on the assumption that the oldest stock is depleted first.Therefore, at the time of issue the rate pertaining to that will be applied. There is no `profit' or `loss' in the p icing arrangements. The value of the stocks held on hand is the money that has be n paid for that amount of stock at latest price levels. In case of too many changes in pr e levels the FIFO System becomes unwieldy. Another limitat ions of is system is at it fails to provide a satisfactory answer to costing-returns from stores. ) LIFO System: This system known as `Last in First Out' System i based on the assumption that the most recent receipts are issued first As the lastest prices are charged in this system, it leads to lower reported p ofits i the periods of rising prices and this offers savings in taxes. In case of wide fluct tions pric s this system tends to immunise unrealised gains or losses in invento y It has almost the same limitations as that of FIFO System. c) Average Cost System: This is b sed on the as umption that issues to production department are equally made from different ipmen s in stock, i. . an average cost of shipment in stores is charged t stabili es th cost figures. The average is to be calculated by dividing the total co t with the n mber of items and is to be updated with every new purchase. d) Market Value System: This is lso known as replacement rate costing, in which the material s issued are char ed the prevailing market rates. This system underestimate e stock n h nd in the case of price increase, whereas it overestimates the s ck on han in the case of price decrease. This may in turn lead to writing off huge mo t to mak it realistic.Moreover, a continuous monitoring of the ma ket tes for all materials makes the system cumbersome. e) Standard Cost System: In this system a detailed analysis of market price and trends is carrie out to determine a standard rate for a fixed period, say six months or so. This standard rate is charged to materials issued during this period irrespective of the actual rate. After the period is over the standard rate is reviewed and updated. This system reflects the efficient use of materials as the fluctuation in rates is not considered in accounting. Moreover, it adds to clerical efficiency as the fresh rates are not to be obtained every time.However, similar to Market Value Approach, this also leads to underestimating or overest imating stocks on hand in case of rising and falling prices respectively. f) System of Costing the Closing Stock: The general guideline for this purpose is to M yI G N O U 12 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in use market price or stock at cost, whichever is less. : The cost of closing stock is governed mainly by price units, obsolescence and deterioration. In rare cases the stock may appreciate with time. Appropriate formulae to account for these factors should be developed keeping in view the past experience.Stock Verification Systems Some discrepancies between the actual and the book balances of inventories are bound to occur despite the diligent store keeping. The process of stock verification is carried out for following purposes: i) To reconcile the store records and documents for their accuracy and usefulness, ii) Identification of areas deserving tighter document control, iii) To back-up the balance sheet stock figures, and iv) To minimise the pilferage and fraudulent practices. Most companies keep an â€Å"inventory short and over† account to abs b such discrepancies, which is eventually closed into the manufacturing overh ads account.Some of the systems of physical stock taking are as follow : a) Annual or Periodic Physical Verification: In this system the entir inventory is physically verified at the end of a period, usually t e accounting period. That is, normally at the end of fiscal year. Stocks are closed f r a fe days This may necessitate the shut down of production operations;. ‘ th activities such as repair and overhaul of equipment and machinery are r orte A s cial crew of store inspectors and stores verifying officers, usually from the material audit, physically check each item and compare the e tries on bin c rd and stores ledger.This leads to the formation of a list of surplus r short ite Dam ged and obsolete items are traced and recorded. This needs o develop a de ailed programme and schedule to complete th e verifications storew se and item ise. Top management's sanction can then be sought for writing off defici ncies o valuing surplus. As all the items are checked at ne time there can be no confusion about any item being left unchecked. b) Perpetual n entory nd Continuous Stock Taking System: In case of large firms dealing w th large num er of items the final inventory system may take a lot of time and it may no e possib e to shut down the whole plant.The perpetual invent ry system i a more appropriate method for large plants. In this method the stock ver ficatio is done continuously throughout the year. Different methods are adopted by ifferent firms for continuous verification. Some firms div de the whole inventory into fifty-two equal parts. Each part is verified every week. Some firms record store balances after every receipt and issue, and a number of items are counted daily or at frequent intervals and checked with the bin cards and stores ledger. Discrepancies found, if any, o wing to incorrect entries, breakage pilferage, over-issue, placing of items in wrong bins, etc. are investigated and corrected accordingly. The significant advantages of this system are as follows: i) The shut down of the plant is not necessary for stock checking/taking. ii) The method is less costly, less tiring, less cumbersome and hence is more accurate. iii) Discrepancies and defects in stores are readily detected and are not carried over M yI G N O U 13 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in throughout the year. This prevents damages and losses. iv) Slow moving stocks can be noted and proper action can be initiated in time. v) The stock items are kept within the limits. ) Low Point Inventory System: Some companies take the physical inventory, i. e. the stock level of stores is checked generally when it reaches its minimum level. Question 6. Write Short notes on: a) Work Sampling Work Sampling is a fact-finding tool. It is a measurement technique for quantit ive a nalysis, in terms of time, of the activity of operators, machines, or f any observ ble state or condition of operation. This tool is particularly useful when inf rmation urgently needed about men or machines, especially in the analysis f non-r p titive or irregularly occurring activity where no complete method and frequen y description is available.Work sampling can be used to study almost a y type of wor : repetitive and non-repetitive, factory or office, executive or supe visory, clerical or ngineering, handlers, salesmen, nurses and what have you. a) Some uses of Work Sampling Work Sampling provides a w y to: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ M yI obtain information bout ei er certain long cycle work or nonrepetitive type of jobs for which it would be clearly impractical to use continuous observ i n methods i dicate if certa activit es should be studied in detail. elp sign the work load distribution in formulating a new work system. t u y any op ration for possible methods improvement. help e tablish job content as an aid to job evaluation and employment purposes. aid supervisors to organise their time. aid appraisal of shop effectiveness, efficiency, safety performance etc. provide feedback information about compliance to stated management policies. assist in establishing standards of performance. establish controls on labour, material or machine utilisation. G N Work sampling is a method of randomly obs rving k ting state or condition of the object being studied.From the proportions f observations in each category, inferences are drawn concerning th total work ac vity under study. It can be used for fact-finding, work measurem nt and m h ds analysis. O U The object of the observations maybe personnel, equipment or facilities which can be categorised as follows: 14 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in Typical categories applied to people are (a) Working (b) Being idle (c) Being out of area (d) W alking (e) Handling material (f) Inspecting (g) Changing tools (h) Cleaning up (i) Handling clerical tasks (j) Talking.Typical categories applied to machines/equipment’s are: At work (b) Idle-no operator (c) Idle-no stock (d) Idle-being serviced (e) Idle interference. ——————————————————————————————————–b) Acceptance Sampling Acceptance sampling uses statistical sampling to determine whether to acc pt or reject a production lot of material. It has been a common quality control techniq used in industry and particularly the military for contracts and procuremen It is usually done as products leave the factory, or in some cases even within the fac ry.Mos often a producer supplies a consumer a number of items and deci on to a cept o reje t the lot is made by determining the number of defective items in a sample from the lot. The lot is accepted if the number of defects falls below where th acceptance n mber or otherwise the lot is rejected. One of the powerful statistical techniques of quality ontrol is Acceptance Sampling. This technique is generally used in those si atio where items are inspected in batches, generally known as lots.The acceptability w l depend on the acceptable quality of the lot, which in turn depends on the u e and the pric you are willing to pay for this quality. Acceptance is based on the infe ence mad from th sample and hence the technique is known as Acceptance Sampling Typically a lo is specified by its size and the fraction of defectives that are expected to e present ( t the most) in the lot. The principles of statistics are used in the infe nce p cess One of the powerful statist al tech iques of quality control is Acceptance Sampling.This technique is generally sed in those situations wher e items are inspected in batches, gener l y know as l ts. For example, you may receive a shipment of 10,000 electric bulbs and y u may ha to decide whether to accept the shipment or return it back to the suppl er. T e accept bility will depend on the acceptable quality of the lot, wh ch turn depends on the use and the price you are willing to pay for this quality. S ppose you decide to accept if the average fraction defective is less than 5 per cent. Th n to ascertain the actual quality you may decide to inspect each acid every bulb.Su h a strategy of. 100 per cent inspection, however, may often be expensive and impractical. In such cases a more intelligent way is to use the concept of Sampling Inspection. ——————————————————————————————————-c) Value Engineering & Analysis Value Engineering or value analysis is a systematic method to improve the â€Å"Value† of goods and services by using an examination of FUNCTION. Value, as defined, is the M yI G N O U 15 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in ratio of Function to Cost.Value can therefore be increased by either improving the Function or reducing the cost. It is a primary tenet of Value Engineering that quality not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing Value improvements. Value Engineering is sometimes taught within the industrial engineering body of knowledge as a technique in which the value of a system’s outputs is optimized by crafting a mix of performance (Function) and costs. In most cases this practice identifies and removes unnecessary expenditures, thereby increasing the value for the manufacturer and/or their customers.Value Engineering uses intuitive logic (a unique â€Å"how† – â€Å"why† questioning technique) an d the analysis of Function to identify relationships that increase Value. It is considered a quantitative method similar to the Scientific Method, which focuses n Hypothesis Conclusion to test relationships, and Operations Research, which uses mod l building to identify predictive relationships. A viable Value Engineering Program is predicated upon an adequa return on investment, typically 1% of total obligated authority for DLA activitie Benefits include: Reduced acquisition costs. Reduced life cycle costs.Reduced total ownership costs. Standardization, simplification or el BEST VALUE! Planning M yI At the Planning stage of developm nt, there are additional benefits to be derived from a Value Engineering Workshop. An independent team can: Review he rogram Perform a fun ional ana ysis of the facility Ob in the wner users definition of value D fine th k y criteria and objectives for the project Veri y/validate the proposed program Review master plan utility options (e. g. Central Uti lity Plant versus individual systems) Offer alternative solutions (square footage needs per function, adjacency solutions, etc. Verify if the budget is adequate for the developed program G VE can be applied at any point in a project can b used in a tractor manufacturing firm also. The main stages of a projec and VE s app cation are described below. N O ina U of o rations or materials. Design This is the stage that most VE participants are used to becoming involved, when the design has at least made it to the schematic stage. The primary tool available to the VE 16 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in team is the Workshop—typically a 40-hour session (or less for smaller or less complex projects).The Workshop is an opportunity to bring the design team and client together to review the proposed design solutions, the cost estimate, and proposed implementation schedule and approach, with a view to implementing the best value for the money. The definition of what i s good value on any particular project will change from client to client and project to project. Methodology and Approach During the actual Workshop portion of the VE study, the five-step Job Pl Information Phase Speculation (Creative) Phase Evaluation (Analysis) Phase Development Phase (Value Management Proposal Presentation Phase (Report/Oral Presentation) Construction s followed: Examples of M Russian liquid-fu l ro ket moto s are intentionally designed to permit ugly (though leakfree) w ldi g Thi reduces costs by eliminating grinding and finishing operations that do not help e mot r function better. Some Japanese disc brakes have parts tolerances to three millimeters, an easy-to-meet precision. When combined with crude statistical process controls, this assures that less than one in a million parts will fail to fit. ————————————————————†”—————————————-d. Waste Management. yI lue Engineering During this phase value engineering is still possible thr ugh the use of Value Engineering Change Proposals (VECP). Contractors can be p ided onetary incentives to propose solutions that offer enhanced value to the owner, and share in the financial benefits realized. Clearly the owner must c nsider contra tor-generated proposals very carefully, from a life-cycle perspective and a liability p rspect ve.The A/E team must be brought in to the decision-making proces to agr e to he proposed change as not having any negative impact on the overall de ign and buil ing function. The evaluation of a VECP is treated similarly to any cha ge ord r during construction, with issues such as schedule and productivity impacts bei g considered along with the perceived cost savings generated. G N O U 17 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in M Disposing of waste in a landfill i volves burying waste to dispose of it, and this remains a common practice in most countr s.Histo ically, landfills were often established in disused quarries, mining void or borrow pits. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygieni and elatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly-de igned or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse envir menta impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of iq d leacha Another common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methan and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down n robical y.Th gas an create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenho se gas =======================xxx======xxxx============================ yI G N Waste management practices differ for developed and d veloping na ions, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial, produ ers. M nagem nt f or non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan are s is usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while man t for n n-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibil y of the g nerator.Waste management methods for vary widely between are s for many reasons, including type of waste material, nearby land uses, and th area avail ble. O U Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human acti ty, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, aesthet s or amenity Waste management is also carried out to reduce the materials' effect on the nvironme t and to recover resources from them.